CARRS-Q Postgraduate Completions

Anxiety sensitivity is a cognitive, individual difference variable that is differentiated by an individual’s fear of anxiety sensations and centred on the belief that such sensations result in harmful consequences. In order to test anxiety sensitivity, Reiss, Peterson, Gursky, and McNally (1986) developed the Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI). However, one contentious issue in the area concerns the factor analytic structure of anxiety sensitivity and this has important consequences for the construct. Numerous investigations have been conducted using the ASI, and the results have varied appreciably with some researchers arguing for a unidimensional construct, however the general consensus now is that anxiety sensitivity is multidimensional. It has been argued that the repeated attempts to clarify the dimensionality of anxiety sensitivity, using the 16-item ASI, is problematic because the scale was never designed to measure a multidimensional construct in the first instance. As such, the objective of the dissertation was to critically examine the anxiety sensitivity construct by using an expanded, multidimensional measure of anxiety sensitivity referred to as the Anxiety Sensitivity Index – Revised ([ASI-R] Taylor & Cox, 1998) and establish the psychometric properties of the measure by conducting a series of empirical investigations in order to assess the clinical utility of the measure.

A series of four empirical investigations were conducted and the results revealed that overall, the 36-ietm ASI-R could be improved substantially through the removal of 15 problematic items in order to account for the most robust dimensions of anxiety sensitivity. The modified measure was re-named the 21-item Anxiety Sensitivity Index (21-item ASI). It was determined that the overall findings made a significant and valid theoretical contribution to the field of anxiety sensitivity in particular, and anxiety research in general, by enhancing our understanding of anxiety sensitivity and how the 21-item ASI could be used to improve therapeutic interventions in clinical practice.

Lisa Buckley
BPsych(Hons), PhD

A peer-based intervention to prevent risk-taking in adolescents: The design, implementation and evaluation

This project involved the design, implementation and evaluation of an intervention to prevent injury in adolescents. Many adolescents are at risk of injury, potentially very serious injury, as a result of lifestyle. Risk-taking behaviours under investigaion included; interpersonal violence, unlawful use of a motor vehicle, drink driving and alcohol and other drug use. The intervention, Skills for Preventing Injury in Youth (SPIY) currently includes an 8-week curriculum program of 50-70 minute lessons for Year 9 Health.  

Preventing the risk-taking behaviour of adolescents is a complex field. Previous research and theories have understood risk-taking from a variety of perspectives by focusing on the influence of an individual’s culture, school and neighbourhood environment, parental and peer relationships and cognitions. One of the more consistent findings related to risk-taking behaviour is that the relationship with peers is an important influence in explaining behaviour, both in terms of the association and the way in which adolescents cognise the relationship.

The research has focused on the less researched area of encouraging friends to be protective and intervene in their friends' risk-taking. The intervention program was also unique in its inclusion of peer protection messages alongside encouraging skill development in first aid and more traditional social-cognitive approaches to reducing risk-taking.

The initial trial of SPIY indicated that it was effective in reducing risk-taking behaviour at post-intervention and six-month follow up periods.

Continued work in this are is proposed by extending the themes to a program for adolescents who have disengaged from school, and extending the evaluation of SPIY for school-based adolescents to a large scale randomised control trial.

This project aimed to explore the relationship that drivers have with their vehicles, the manner in which car owners/drivers view their vehicle as 'territory' and the implications of this for driver behaviour (in particular aggressive and prosocial driving). Specifically, the research aimed to:
- Investigate whether the car is perceived as 'primary territory' (i.e., similar to the way that people relate to their home), under what circumstances this occurs, and how it is manifested.
- Investigate how different categories of driver (e.g., young drivers, parents) perceive the car in territorial terms, and the implications of this for road user behaviour.
- Develop a classification of how drivers interpret common driving situations and examine the relationship between these situations, territorial attachments to the car, and driving behaviour.
- Provide directions for road safety practitioners seeking countermeasures for crashes caused by aggressive driver behaviour.

Drink driving continues to be a serious and persistent problem on Australian roads as alcohol-related crashes result in substantial fatalities, injuries and property damage.  While legal and social sanctions have been effective in preventing a large proportion of the population from drink driving, there has been relatively little success in preventing alcohol impaired driving among repeat offenders.  This group of recidivist drink drivers do not appear to be influenced by public education, awareness programs nor the threat of traditional legal sanctions such as fines and license disqualifications.  Therefore alternative interventions are needed to reduce the prevalence of drink driving re-offences.

Alcohol ignition interlocks and rehabilitation programs have been proposed as further interventions to reduce recidivist drink driving. An alcohol ignition interlock is a device which is connected to the ignition and power system of a vehicle and is designed to prevent the vehicle from being started if the driver's blood alcohol content exceeds the legal limit.  Interlocks require the driver to provide a breath sample every time they attempt to start the vehicle, and also requires the driver to provide rolling re-tests once they are driving.

This PhD study aimed to examine the processes of change experienced by recidivist drink drivers who complete a drink driving rehabilitation program (CARRS-Q's "Under the Limit") and install an ignition interlock to their vehicle in order to inhibit further offences.  The study focused on  the attitudinal and behavioural changes resulting from the interventions, as well as highlighting mediating factors which effect successful rehabilitative outcomes (e.g. alcohol dependency, motivation levels).  Furthermore, this research has provided the first formative evaluation of the impact that interlocks have on participants' lifestyles e.g. driving and drink driving behaviour, employment etc.

This dissertation investigated a highly specialised area of law enforcement known as covert or undercover policing and identified key psychological processes underpinning Australasian police officer’s re-entry from covert police work to mainstream policing environments. Several key social, organisational and psychological factors found to impact on post-operational adjustment are also reported.

In monitoring undercover officers, it was found that personal changes can occur over the course of the covert training, operational duties and returning to mainstream police work. Results revealed that officers not only role play in undercover police work they can also internalise aspects of their undercover work to define themselves as police officers and, most significantly, as individuals. A major psychological process underpinning the re-entry phase for these Australasian undercover officers was found to involve cognitive negotiation processes that attempt to reconcile the value of officers’ personal and the more dominant mainstream professional identity. The process of negotiating the value of the undercover identity; modifying behavioural norms and integrating dual work identities to fit into the mainstream culture produced internal conflict in the majority. Implications for psychological monitoring of undercover police personnel are discussed in light of the findings from this applied research.

This dissertation makes a number of practical recommendations to assist law enforcement agencies to incorporate evidence base practice into existing covert risk assessment, monitoring and management protocols. It also contributes to the design and timing of reintegration programs and produces empirically valid reference material with practically based outcomes for future use by Australasian police jurisdictions.

Mark King
BSc(Hons), MBA, PhD

Transfer of road safety knowledge and expertise to Asia

A considerable body of road safety knowledge and expertise has been developed in the West, and is being utilised in less motorised countries around the world.  This transfer of knowledge and expertise takes place in a number of ways,  from local initiatives through to projects delivered by consultants and funded by organisations such as the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank.  

There is evidence in the research literature, and anecdotally, that some transfer efforts have not been successful, and at times counterproductive.  It is hypothesised that this is because of a lack of fit between Western approaches and the institutional, economic, social, cultural and behavioural contexts in non-Western countries.

Using Asia (and South East Asia in particular) as the arena for study, this doctoral research aimed to:
- Use secondary sources to identify failures in the transfer of road safety knowledge and expertise.
- Determine the extent to which institutional, economic, social, cultural and behavioural factors have contributed to this failure, in particular because of a failure to understand and engage road users.
- Conduct case studies in Asia to confirm and elaborate the patterns identified in the previous steps.
- Make recommendations regarding methodologies, practices, policies, standards and training aimed at improving the effectiveness of future transfer efforts.

Ioni Lewis
BSc, BPsych(Hons), PhD

Factors that influence the effectiveness of advertising countermeasures in road safety

Each year, advertising represents a significant component of Australian governments' expenditure on road safety countermeasures. Surprisingly, the majority of such campaigns are not designed according to any sound theory. This is despite research that suggests theoretical campaigns are more effective than atheoretical campaigns. Furthermore, despite the evident popularity of threat-based advertisements or "fear appeals" as they are more commonly known, much ambiguity surrounds how effective fear is as a persuasive device.

Thus, given these issues, the PhD project aims to extend the theoretical basis of advertisement design. This theoretical framework will draw upon established social psychological models of both health behaviour change as well as persuasion. Moreover, this project will further explore the relationship between emotion in general and persuasion, rather than focus only upon the emotion of fear.

Specifically, the project will incorporate qualitative and quantitative research methods across three studies. Study One will consist of a series of focus groups in which drivers' responses (in particular emotional responses) to a number of speeding and drink driving advertisements will be examined. Study Two will examine drivers' self-reported intentions and behaviour following exposure to a selection of road safety advertisements. Study Three will again expose drivers to a number of road safety advertisements however, the outcome measure of interest will be a objective measure of behaviour such as performance via a simulator as opposed to self-reported data.

Sharon Newnam
BSSc (Hons) Psych, PhD

Fleet safety countermeasures in a large Australian fleet (QFleet)

Work-related safety has received increasing attention in recent years, due to the growing awareness of the extent of the problem. Road crashes have become the most common form of work-related death, injury and absence from work. As such, it has become imperative to understand the factors contributing to work-related road crashes so that appropriate interventions can be implemented.

The PhD study evaluated fleet safety countermeasures in a large Australian fleet (QFleet). Stage 1 evaluated existing countermeasures within QFleet by utilising pre and post comparisons of the crash rate and associated costs. Stage 2 evaluated one or more new countermeasures and elicit change in drivers' and/or managers' behaviour, which will subsequently lead to an improvement in road safety and an increase in the efficiency of the company. Study 3 synthesised the findings from a number of interviews, in addition to the results obtained from Stages 1 and 2 and developed a comprehensive model of fleet safety.

Colette Roos
BSc(Psych)(Hons), PhD

An examination of investigative interview techniques using road crash incidents as stimuli

The investigative interviewing of eyewitnesses is an important part of the judicial system and is essential in police investigations to identify culpable parties. However, interviewing witnesses to elicit accurate recall is not without some flaws. Researchers have acknowledged that recall of information is a complex process vulnerable to variables which impede the retrieval of accurate information. To improve witness recall, psychologists developed the Cognitive Interview (CI) procedure to help interviewers retrieve more correct information from witnesses. The use of the CI has been shown to increase accuracy in many populations. However, there are some criticisms of the CI. For example, the CI may cause confusion for witnesses, takes longer to administer than a standard police interview and contain components which are reported to undermine the effectiveness of this procedure. This research program utilised three studies in a multimethod approach to evaluate investigative interviewing procedures, from an experimental and applied perspective. The overarching aim of this research was to identify a parsimonious, effective and efficient interview procedure which overcame some of the limitations recognized in the CI.

The first study employed an experimental methodology to test the effectiveness of the CI and two alternative versions of the CI. Study Two examined the perceptions of the interview procedure from the witnesses’ perspective. Study Three used a triangulation methodology to determine what the Queensland Police Service officers were currently trained in and practising in the field.

The integration of the findings from the three studies helped to inform the current state of research in the area of investigative interviewing. In particular, this research provides a target examination of interviewing practices in a sub-section of the Queensland Police Service. The findings from the three studies were used to identify an interview procedure which obtained more correct information, did not gain an increase in incorrect information, reduced the time required to conduct the interview, was not confusing for the witnesses, or the officers, and contained no inherent problems for the judicial system. Further recommendations were made for the use of interview protocols for investigative interviewing of road incidents.

Jane Shakespeare-Finch
BSSc (Hons) Psych, PhD

Posttraumatic growth in emergency ambulance personnel: The roles of personality and coping

This project explored the relationship between individual characteristics, coping resources and posttraumatic growth (personally perceived positive changes following a traumatic event) in operational ambulance personnel. 

There were three objectives of the research: 
- To develop a conceptual model that clarifies the relationship between characteristics inherent in the individual, coping activities and posttraumatic growth following a critical incident. 
- To test the conceptual model ascertaining the strength of relationship between personal factors, coping activities and posttraumatic growth within the emergency ambulance population. 
- Identification of the personal factors and coping activities that predict posttraumatic growth following a critical incident. 

Unlicensed driving remains a serious problem in many countries, despite ongoing improvements in traffic law enforcement practices and technology. While it does not play a direct causative role in road crashes, unlicensed driving undermines the integrity of the driver licensing system and is associated with a cluster of high-risk behaviours, including drink driving, speeding and motorcycle use.

This PhD research involved three studies that were undertaken to explore the scope and nature of unlicensed driving, in order to develop more effective countermeasures to the behaviour. Study One utilised data from Queensland Transport’s road crash database to compare the crash involvement patterns of unlicensed and licensed drivers. The findings indicated that unlicensed drivers are almost three times more likely to be involved in a crash than licensed drivers. In the event of a crash, those involving unlicensed drivers are twice as likely to result in a fatality or serious injury. Study Two involved a cross-sectional survey of 309 unlicensed driving offenders who were recruited at the Brisbane Central Magistrates Court. This study reinforced concerns about the on-road behaviour of unlicensed drivers, but indicated that they should not be viewed as a homogenous group. Significant differences were found between different types of unlicensed drivers in terms of their socio-demographic characteristics (age, education level, prior criminal convictions); driving history (prior convictions for unlicensed driving and other traffic offences); whether they were aware of being unlicensed; the degree to which they limited their driving while unlicensed; and their drink driving behaviour. Study Three involved the further analysis of the cross-sectional survey data to explore the factors contributing to unlicensed driving. It examined the capacity of a number of different theoretical perspectives to explain unlicensed driving behaviour, including deterrence theory, Akers’ (1977) social learning theory, sensation seeking and alcohol misuse. The findings suggested that social learning theory represents a more comprehensive model for predicting illegal driving behaviours, such as unlicensed driving.

Together, the results of the three studies question the common assumption that unlicensed drivers drive in a more cautious manner to avoid detection. While the findings indicate that many offenders reduce their overall driving exposure in order to avoid detection, this does not appear to result in safer driving. In terms of countermeasures, the research indicates that a multi-strategy approach is required to address the problem of unlicensed driving. Innovative strategies are required to address the wide range of factors that appear to encourage or facilitate unlicensed driving.

Clive Williams
BA (Psych) (Hons), PhD

Stealing a car to be a man: The importance of cars and driving in the gender of adolescent males

In this thesis the attitudes and experiences of adolescent males who had been convicted of offences were compared with a similar age group who attended a private school and had no history of delinquency. The analyses focused on the beliefs held by both groups about what they considered was necessary in order to be a man. Both groups strongly endorsed traditional notions of masculinity such as "having a family", however approximately one third of each group also endorsed a range of illegal activities that involved stealing and drinking. For both groups "owning a car" and being "able to drive" were the most important behaviours to establish manhood. Road safety programs to date have not considered these aspects of gender and future efforts to curb novice driver crashes need to consider masculine identity in understanding adolescent male driving.

Mark Woolf
BSc, PhD

The effect of age and visual impairment on traffic sign detection

Stage I of this project encompassed the development and validation of a dynamic technique for measuring visibility/legibility distances on closed and open roads. The system was shown to have better than 90% accuracy for legibility distances up to 175 meters, and measurements between experimenters were consistent. The system was also easy to use and economical.

Stage II of the project (the application of the measuring system) has also been completed. Two studies were undertaken to assess the application of the technique. Study 1 was carried out to investigate the differences in sign legibility distances when a subject was a passenger or driver as most open road experiments use subjects as passengers due to safety issues. The results showed no significant differences in sign legibility distances between passengers and drivers allowing for the use of participants as passengers in the main study. The main study (Study 2) tested subjects on a specially selected open road course. Subjects of different ages were assessed under varying traffic/road conditions under day time and night time illumination for a series of road sign designs. The results showed that traffic sign recognition and legibility distances were greater under high compared to low illumination. In addition, the presence of ocular disease resulted in significantly reduced recongition and legibility performance, particularly for individuals with age-related macular degeneration. Guide signs had the highest recognition and longest legibility distances of all sign categories while street signs showed the poorest recongition. The obtained traffic sign legibility distances were less than the predcited sign design distances used by road authorities for all of the participant groups except the young visually normal group. Of the vision measures investigated, high and low contrast static acuity, static visual fields and contrast sensitivity were the most highly correlated with traffic sign recognition and legibiltiy distances. These four vision tests increased the prediction of sign recognition and legibility distances when compared to high contrast static visual acuity alone.

Adrian Derbyshire
BEng(Civil), MEng

Development of full scale crash testing procedures for road barrier systems
This research successfully developed and demonstrated appropriate techniques to conduct a full scale test on road side safety furniture. The project evaluated different techniques for accelerating the vehicle to the test speed, accurately guiding the vehicle into the barrier and being able to stop the vehicle if the test needed to be aborted or subsequent to the impact. The best techniques were chosen and used in a test on a yielding energy-absorbing pole to demonstrated that the procedures work.

The test on the pole also demonstrated the safety advantages of using an energy absorbing pole when the pole is mounted on an embankment. The pole functioned well except that the luminaire was not well connected to the pole and broke loose on impact.

Susan Hart
BA(Hons)(Psych),MAppSc

Organisational barriers and facilitators to the effective operation of RBT (random breath testing) in Queensland
While a great deal of research shows the relationship between increased police enforcement and reductions in alcohol related crashes, little is known about what enforcement problems police face or what methods they find to be especially useful. This thesis explored this issue through interviews with Queensland Police officers who organise and manage Random Breath Testing (RBT) operations and through a survey completed by rank and file officers who undertake RBT on a daily or regular basis. In general, there was a strong degree of support for RBT among police involved in both the planning and delivery of the program. However, the research also identified opportunities for improvement, such as providing better feedback to officers regarding the success of their efforts.

Naomi Richards
BPsych(Hons), MAppSc

Fatigue and beyond: Patterns of, and motivations for illicit drug use among long haul truck drivers
Long distance truck drivers are considered a special interest group in terms of drug driving research and policy due to high rates of use, involvement of drugs in truck accidents and the link between drug use and work related fatigue. Qualitative interview data was collected from 35 long haul truck drivers in South East Queensland and analysed using NVivo 2.0. High rates of licit and illicit drug use (particularly amphetamines) were reported. However, unlike previous studies which focus on fatigue, this research found overlapping and changing motivations for drug use during individual lifetimes. Using Becker’s model of a drug use ‘career’ it was revealed that some drivers begin illicit drug use before they begin truck driving. As well as fatigue, powerful motives such as peer pressure, wanting to fit the trucking ‘image’, socialisation, relaxation and addiction were reported. These may need to be considered along side fatigue in the development of effective drug prevention or cessation policies for truck drivers.

Rider Risk Assessment Measure (RRAM): An instrument to identify high-risk motorcyclists and factors contributing to their behaviour
Despite the high road statistics, motorcycle safety research in Australia is scarce. What little is known about motorcyclists is gleaned mostly from crash statistics and overseas research which is often outdated and not easily transferable to the Australian context. Given the growing number of motorcycle registrations, and the disproportionate number of motorcyclists killed or injured on Australian roads, there is an urgent need for up-to-date, Australian-based research into ways to address this issue.

No instruments for motorcyclists currently exist which provide a reliable measure of the psychosocial influences contributing to high risk rider behaviour. Therefore, a Rider Risk Assessment Measure (RRAM) will be developed to assess self-reported rider behaviour and intentions, along with the personal, social and environmental factors contributing to unsafe riding practices. This will provide a valuable tool for researching rider behaviour, evaluating rider safety countermeasures and informing rider training and education programs.

The RRAM will consist of a battery of scales to measure:
(i) self-reported rider behaviour and intentions; and
(ii) a range of personal, social, and environmental factors that influence unsafe riding practices.

The goal of this research is to:
1. develop a better understanding of the personal, social and environmental influences on rider behaviour in an Australian context;
2. guide the development of future motorcycle safety countermeasures; and
3. develop a tool to inform the evaluation of motorcycle safety countermeasures, particularly in the area of training and education.